Early onset psychosis: a review
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Published
2016-12-07
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Martín Gutiérrez, R., & Payá González, B. (2016). Early onset psychosis: a review. Revista De Psiquiatría Infanto-Juvenil, 33(4), 458–468. https://doi.org/10.31766/revpsij.v33n4a2
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Section
Review article
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31766/revpsij.v33n4a2Abstract
Psicosis es un término utilizado para referirse a un grupo de trastornos mentales graves cuya principal característica es la pérdida de contacto con la realidad. La palabra “psychose” se empleaba clásicamente para referirse a la enfermedad mental, y no es hasta finales del siglo XIX cuando el concepto de psicosis empieza a definirse de una forma más concreta.
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References
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2. Berrios GE. Historia de los síntomas de los trastornos mentales: la psicopatología descriptiva desde el siglo XIX: Fondo de Cultura Económica; 2013.
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11. Green WH, Campbell M, Hardesty AS, Grega DM, Padron-Gayol M, Shell J, et al. A comparison of schizophrenic and autistic children. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1984; 23: 399-409.
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13. Castro-Fornieles J, Parellada M, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Moreno D, Graell M, Baeza I, et al. The child and adolescent first-episode psychosis study (CAFEPS): design and baseline results. Schizophr Res 2007; 91: 226-237.
14. McGorry PD, Purcell R, Goldstone S, Amminger GP. Age of onset and timing of treatment for mental and substance use disorders: implications for preventive intervention strategies and models of care. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2011; 24: 301-306.
15. Lohr D, Birmaher B. Psychotic disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin North Am 1995; 4: 237–254.
16. Ulloa RE, Birmaher B, Axelson D, Williamson DE, Brent DA, Ryan ND, et al. Psychosis in a pediatric mood and anxiety disorders clinic: phenomenology and correlates. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2000; 39: 337-345.
17. Baldwin P, Browne D, Scully PJ, Quinn JF, Morgan MG, Kinsella A, et al. Epidemiology of first-episode psychosis: illustrating the challenges across diagnostic boundaries through the Cavan-Monaghan study at 8 years. Schizophr Bull 2005; 31: 624-638.
18. Volkmar FR. Childhood and adolescent psychosis: a review of the past 10 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996; 35: 843-851.
19. Werry JS. Child and adolescent (early onset) schizophrenia: a review in light of DSM-III-R. J Autism Dev Disord 1992; 22: 601-624.
20. Burd L, Kerbeshian J. A North Dakota prevalence study of schizophrenia presenting in childhood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1987; 26: 347-350.
21. Van Meter AR, Moreira AL, Youngstrom EA. Meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies of pediatric bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2011; 72: 1250-1256.
22. Moreno C, Laje G, Blanco C, Jiang H, Schmidt AB, Olfson M. National trends in the outpatient diagnosis and treatment of bipolar disorder in youth. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007; 64: 1032-1039.
23. Nuechterlein KH, Dawson ME, Ventura J, Gitlin M, Subotnik KL, Snyder KS, et al. The vulnerability/stress model of schizophrenic relapse: a longitudinal study. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1994; 382: 58-64.
24. Zubin J, Spring B. Vulnerability - a new view of schizophrenia. J Abnorm Psychol 1977; 86: 103-126.
25. Valles V, Van Os J, Guillamat R, Gutierrez B, Campillo M, Gento P, et al. Increased morbid risk for schizophrenia in families of in-patients with bipolar illness. Schizophr Res 2000; 42: 83-90.
26. Cross-Disorder Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium. Identification of risk loci with shared effects on five major psychiatric disorders: a genome-wide analysis. The Lancet 2013; 381: 1371-1379.
27. Addington AM, Rapoport JL. The genetics of childhood-onset schizophrenia: when madness strikes the prepubescent. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2009; 11: 156-161.
28. van Os J, Rutten BP, Poulton R. Geneenvironment interactions in schizophrenia: review of epidemiological findings and future directions. Schizophr Bull 2008; 34: 1066-1082.
29. Arango C. Esquizofrenia: ¿Proceso atrófico, del desarrollo o ambos? Ciclo vital y trastornos psiquiátricos graves (pp. 37-55); 2002.
30. Karlsgodt KH, Sun D, Jimenez AM, Lutkenhoff ES, Willhite R, van Erp TG, et al. Developmental disruptions in neural connectivity in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Dev Psychopathol 2008; 20: 1297-1327.
31. Berger GE, Wood S, McGorry PD. Incipient neurovulnerability and neuroprotection in early psychosis. Psychopharmacol Bull 2003; 37: 79-101.
32. Kahn HS, Graff M, Stein AD, Zybert PA, McKeague IW, Lumey LH. A fingerprint characteristic associated with the early prenatal environment. Am J Hum Biol 2008; 20: 59-65.
33. Johnson RD, Oliver PL, Davies KE. SNARE proteins and schizophrenia: linking synaptic and neurodevelopmental hypotheses. Acta Biochim Pol 2008; 55: 619-628.
34. Marshall M, Lewis S, Lockwood A, Drake R, Jones P, Croudace T. Association between duration of untreated psychosis and outcome in cohorts of first-episode patients: a systematic review. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 975-983.
35. Perkins DO, Gu H, Boteva K, Lieberman JA. Relationship between duration of untreated psychosis and outcome in first-episode schizophrenia: a critical review and meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 1785-1804.
36. Arango C, Kahn R. Progressive brain changes in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2008; 34: 310-311.
37. Lieberman J, Chakos M, Wu H, Alvir J, Hoffman E, Robinson D, et al. Longitudinal study of brain morphology in first episode schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 49: 487-499.
38. Mathalon DH, Sullivan EV, Lim KO, Pfefferbaum A. Progressive brain volume changes and the clinical course of schizophrenia in men: a longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58: 148-157.
39. Keshavan MS, Haas GL, Kahn CE, Aguilar E, Dick EL, Schooler NR, et al. Superior temporal gyrus and the course of early schizophrenia: progressive, static, or reversible? J Psychiatr Res 1998; 32: 161-167.
40. Gelder M. Introduction: Adolf Meyer and his influence on British psychiatry. Hist Psychiatry 2003; 14: 475-492.
41. Rothstein A. Hallucinatory phenomena in childhood. A critique of the literature. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1981; 20: 623-635.
42. Carlson GA, Kashani JH. Manic symptoms in a non-referred adolescent population. J Affect Disord 1988; 15: 219-226.
43. Werry JS, McClellan JM, Andrews LK, Ham M. Clinical features and outcome of child and adolescent schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1994; 20: 619-630.
44. Werry JS, McClellan JM, Chard L. Childhood and adolescent schizophrenic, bipolar, and schizoaffective disorders: a clinical and outcome study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1991; 30: 457-465.
45. Spencer EK, Campbell M. Children with schizophrenia: diagnosis, phenomenology, and pharmacotherapy. Schizophr Bull 1994; 20: 713-725.
46. Volkmar FR, Cohen DJ, Hoshino Y, Rende RD, Paul R. Phenomenology and classification of the childhood psychoses. Psychol Med 1988; 18: 191-201.
47. Garralda E. Hallucinations in children. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1983; 22: 309-310.
48. Sadock BJ, Sadock V.A. Esquizofrenia de inicio en la infancia. En: Kaplan & Sadock Sinopsis de Psiquiatría. Ciencias de la conducta / Psiquiatría Clínica (10ª ed., pp. 1289-1293). Barcelona: Wolters; 2008.
49. Geller B, Bolhofner K, Craney JL, Williams M, DelBello MP, Gundersen K. Psychosocial functioning in a prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar disorder phenotype. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2000; 39: 1543-1548.
50. Organización Mundial de la Salud. CIE-10. Trastornos mentales y del Comportamiento. Descripciones Clínicas y Pautas para el Diagnóstico. Madrid: MEDITOR; 1992.
51. American Psychiatic Association. DSM-5. Manual Diagnóstico y Estadístico de los Trastornos Mentales. Madrid: Editorial Médica Panamericana; 2014.
52. Biederman J, Petty C, Faraone SV, Seidman L. Phenomenology of childhood psychosis: findings from a large sample of psychiatrically referred youth. J Nerv Ment Dis 2004; 192: 607-614.
53. Cassano GB, Pini S, Saettoni M, Rucci P, Dell’Osso L. Occurrence and clinical correlates of psychiatric comorbidity in patients with psychotic disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59: 60-68.
54. Gartner J, Weintraub S, Carlson GA. Childhoodonset psychosis: evolution and comorbidity. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 256-261.
55. Ulloa RE, Ortiz S, Higuera F, Nogales I, Fresan A, Apiquian R, et al. [Interrater reliability of the Spanish version of Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children--Present and Lifetime version (K-SADSPL)]. Actas Esp Psiquiatr 2006; 34: 36-40.
56. Henin A, Biederman J, Mick E, Hirshfeld-Becker DR, Sachs GS, Wu Y, et al. Childhood antecedent disorders to bipolar disorder in adults: a controlled study. J Affect Disord 2007; 99: 51-57.
57. Kowatch RA, Youngstrom EA, Danielyan A, Findling RL. Review and meta-analysis of the phenomenology and clinical characteristics of mania in children and adolescents. Bipolar Disord 2005; 7: 483-496.
58. Vantalon V, Cohen DM. [Attention deficithyperactivity disorder or juvenile mania]. Arch Pediatr 2004; 11: 1484-1489.
59. Joa I, Johannessen JO, Langeveld J, Friis S, Melle I, Opjordsmoen S, et al. Baseline profiles of adolescent vs. adult-onset first-episode psychosis in an early detection program. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2009; 119: 494-500.
60. Fraguas D, Del Rey-Mejias A, Moreno C, Castro-Fornieles J, Graell M, Otero S, et al. Duration of untreated psychosis predicts functional and clinical outcome in children and adolescents with first-episode psychosis: a 2-year longitudinal study. Schizophr Res 2014; 152: 130-138.
61. Dominguez MD, Fisher HL, Major B, Chisholm B, Rahaman N, Joyce J, et al. Duration of untreated psychosis in adolescents: ethnic differences and clinical profiles. Schizophr Res 2013; 150: 526-532.
62. Tondo L, Lepri B, Cruz N, Baldessarini RJ. Age at onset in 3014 Sardinian bipolar and major depressive disorder patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2010; 121: 446-452.
63. Vieta E, Angst J, Reed C, Bertsch J, Haro JM, EMBLEM Advisory Board. Predictors of switching from mania to depression in a large observational study across Europe (EMBLEM). J Affect Disord 2009; 118: 118-123.
64. Lolich M, Vazquez G, Leiderman EA. [First psychotic episode in bipolar disorder: clinical differentiation and functional impact in an Argentinean national sample]. Vertex 2010; 21: 418-427.
65. Strejilevich S, Retamal Carrasco P. [Perception of the impact of Bipolar Disorder and its diagnosis in health centers in Argentine and Chile]. Vertex 2003; 14: 245-252.
66. Castro-Fornieles J, Baeza I, de la Serna E, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Parellada M, Graell M, et al. Two-year diagnostic stability in early-onset firstepisode psychosis. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2011; 52: 1089-1098.
67. Fraguas D, de Castro MJ, Medina O, Parellada M, Moreno D, Graell M, et al. Does diagnostic classification of early-onset psychosis change over follow-up? Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2008; 39: 137-145.
68. Clemmensen L, Vernal DL, Steinhausen HC. A systematic review of the long-term outcome of early onset schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry 2012; 12: 150.
69. Amminger GP, Henry LP, Harrigan SM, Harris MG, Alvarez-Jimenez M, Herrman H, et al. Outcome in early-onset schizophrenia revisited: findings from the Early Psychosis Prevention and Intervention Centre long-term follow-up study. Schizophr Res 2011; 131: 112-119.
70. Emsley R, Rabinowitz J, Medori R; Early Psychosis Global Working Group. Remission in early psychosis: Rates, predictors, and clinical and functional outcome correlates. Schizophr Res 2007; 89: 129-139.
71. Harrison G, Hopper K, Craig T, Laska E, Siegel C, Wanderling J, et al. Recovery from psychotic illness: a 15- and 25-year international follow-up study. Br J Psychiatry 2001; 178: 506-517.
72. Addington J, Addington D. Patterns of premorbid functioning in first episode psychosis: relationship to 2-year outcome. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2005; 112: 40-46.
73. Hollis C. Developmental precursors of childand adolescent-onset schizophrenia and affective psychoses: diagnostic specificity and continuity with symptom dimensions. Br J Psychiatry 2003; 182: 37-44.
74. Vyas NS, Hadjulis M, Vourdas A, Byrne P, Frangou S. The Maudsley early onset schizophrenia study. Predictors of psychosocial outcome at 4-year follow-up. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007; 16: 465-470.
75. Birmaher B, Axelson D. Course and outcome of bipolar spectrum disorder in children and adolescents: a review of the existing literature. Dev Psychopathol 2006; 18: 1023-1035.
76. Birmaher B, Axelson D, Strober M, Gill MK, Valeri S, Chiappetta L, et al. Clinical course of children and adolescents with bipolar spectrum disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006; 63: 175-183.
2. Berrios GE. Historia de los síntomas de los trastornos mentales: la psicopatología descriptiva desde el siglo XIX: Fondo de Cultura Económica; 2013.
3. McClellan J, McCurry C, Speltz ML, Jones K. Symptom factors in early-onset psychotic disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002; 41: 791-798.
4. McKenna K, Gordon CT, Rapoport JL. Childhoodonset schizophrenia: timely neurobiological research. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1994; 33: 771-781.
5. Kraepelin E. Compendium der Psychiatrie: zum Gebrauch für Studierende und Ärzte: VDM Publishing; 2007.
6. Reisman JM. A history of clinical psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Taylor & Francis Group; 1991.
7. Kolvin I. Studies in the childhood psychoses. I. Diagnostic criteria and classification. Br J Psychiatry 1971; 118: 381-384.
8. Rutter M. Childhood schizophrenia reconsidered. J Autism Child Schizophr 1972; 2: 315-337.
9. Eggers C. Course and prognosis of childhood schizophrenia. J Autism Child Schizophr 1978; 8: 21-36.
10. Russell AT, Bott L, Sammons C. The phenomenology of schizophrenia occurring in childhood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1989; 28: 399-407.
11. Green WH, Campbell M, Hardesty AS, Grega DM, Padron-Gayol M, Shell J, et al. A comparison of schizophrenic and autistic children. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1984; 23: 399-409.
12. Green WH, Padron-Gayol M, Hardesty AS, Bassiri M. Schizophrenia with childhood onset: a phenomenological study of 38 cases. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1992; 31: 968-976.
13. Castro-Fornieles J, Parellada M, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Moreno D, Graell M, Baeza I, et al. The child and adolescent first-episode psychosis study (CAFEPS): design and baseline results. Schizophr Res 2007; 91: 226-237.
14. McGorry PD, Purcell R, Goldstone S, Amminger GP. Age of onset and timing of treatment for mental and substance use disorders: implications for preventive intervention strategies and models of care. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2011; 24: 301-306.
15. Lohr D, Birmaher B. Psychotic disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin North Am 1995; 4: 237–254.
16. Ulloa RE, Birmaher B, Axelson D, Williamson DE, Brent DA, Ryan ND, et al. Psychosis in a pediatric mood and anxiety disorders clinic: phenomenology and correlates. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2000; 39: 337-345.
17. Baldwin P, Browne D, Scully PJ, Quinn JF, Morgan MG, Kinsella A, et al. Epidemiology of first-episode psychosis: illustrating the challenges across diagnostic boundaries through the Cavan-Monaghan study at 8 years. Schizophr Bull 2005; 31: 624-638.
18. Volkmar FR. Childhood and adolescent psychosis: a review of the past 10 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996; 35: 843-851.
19. Werry JS. Child and adolescent (early onset) schizophrenia: a review in light of DSM-III-R. J Autism Dev Disord 1992; 22: 601-624.
20. Burd L, Kerbeshian J. A North Dakota prevalence study of schizophrenia presenting in childhood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1987; 26: 347-350.
21. Van Meter AR, Moreira AL, Youngstrom EA. Meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies of pediatric bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2011; 72: 1250-1256.
22. Moreno C, Laje G, Blanco C, Jiang H, Schmidt AB, Olfson M. National trends in the outpatient diagnosis and treatment of bipolar disorder in youth. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007; 64: 1032-1039.
23. Nuechterlein KH, Dawson ME, Ventura J, Gitlin M, Subotnik KL, Snyder KS, et al. The vulnerability/stress model of schizophrenic relapse: a longitudinal study. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1994; 382: 58-64.
24. Zubin J, Spring B. Vulnerability - a new view of schizophrenia. J Abnorm Psychol 1977; 86: 103-126.
25. Valles V, Van Os J, Guillamat R, Gutierrez B, Campillo M, Gento P, et al. Increased morbid risk for schizophrenia in families of in-patients with bipolar illness. Schizophr Res 2000; 42: 83-90.
26. Cross-Disorder Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium. Identification of risk loci with shared effects on five major psychiatric disorders: a genome-wide analysis. The Lancet 2013; 381: 1371-1379.
27. Addington AM, Rapoport JL. The genetics of childhood-onset schizophrenia: when madness strikes the prepubescent. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2009; 11: 156-161.
28. van Os J, Rutten BP, Poulton R. Geneenvironment interactions in schizophrenia: review of epidemiological findings and future directions. Schizophr Bull 2008; 34: 1066-1082.
29. Arango C. Esquizofrenia: ¿Proceso atrófico, del desarrollo o ambos? Ciclo vital y trastornos psiquiátricos graves (pp. 37-55); 2002.
30. Karlsgodt KH, Sun D, Jimenez AM, Lutkenhoff ES, Willhite R, van Erp TG, et al. Developmental disruptions in neural connectivity in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Dev Psychopathol 2008; 20: 1297-1327.
31. Berger GE, Wood S, McGorry PD. Incipient neurovulnerability and neuroprotection in early psychosis. Psychopharmacol Bull 2003; 37: 79-101.
32. Kahn HS, Graff M, Stein AD, Zybert PA, McKeague IW, Lumey LH. A fingerprint characteristic associated with the early prenatal environment. Am J Hum Biol 2008; 20: 59-65.
33. Johnson RD, Oliver PL, Davies KE. SNARE proteins and schizophrenia: linking synaptic and neurodevelopmental hypotheses. Acta Biochim Pol 2008; 55: 619-628.
34. Marshall M, Lewis S, Lockwood A, Drake R, Jones P, Croudace T. Association between duration of untreated psychosis and outcome in cohorts of first-episode patients: a systematic review. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 975-983.
35. Perkins DO, Gu H, Boteva K, Lieberman JA. Relationship between duration of untreated psychosis and outcome in first-episode schizophrenia: a critical review and meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 1785-1804.
36. Arango C, Kahn R. Progressive brain changes in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2008; 34: 310-311.
37. Lieberman J, Chakos M, Wu H, Alvir J, Hoffman E, Robinson D, et al. Longitudinal study of brain morphology in first episode schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 49: 487-499.
38. Mathalon DH, Sullivan EV, Lim KO, Pfefferbaum A. Progressive brain volume changes and the clinical course of schizophrenia in men: a longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58: 148-157.
39. Keshavan MS, Haas GL, Kahn CE, Aguilar E, Dick EL, Schooler NR, et al. Superior temporal gyrus and the course of early schizophrenia: progressive, static, or reversible? J Psychiatr Res 1998; 32: 161-167.
40. Gelder M. Introduction: Adolf Meyer and his influence on British psychiatry. Hist Psychiatry 2003; 14: 475-492.
41. Rothstein A. Hallucinatory phenomena in childhood. A critique of the literature. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1981; 20: 623-635.
42. Carlson GA, Kashani JH. Manic symptoms in a non-referred adolescent population. J Affect Disord 1988; 15: 219-226.
43. Werry JS, McClellan JM, Andrews LK, Ham M. Clinical features and outcome of child and adolescent schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1994; 20: 619-630.
44. Werry JS, McClellan JM, Chard L. Childhood and adolescent schizophrenic, bipolar, and schizoaffective disorders: a clinical and outcome study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1991; 30: 457-465.
45. Spencer EK, Campbell M. Children with schizophrenia: diagnosis, phenomenology, and pharmacotherapy. Schizophr Bull 1994; 20: 713-725.
46. Volkmar FR, Cohen DJ, Hoshino Y, Rende RD, Paul R. Phenomenology and classification of the childhood psychoses. Psychol Med 1988; 18: 191-201.
47. Garralda E. Hallucinations in children. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1983; 22: 309-310.
48. Sadock BJ, Sadock V.A. Esquizofrenia de inicio en la infancia. En: Kaplan & Sadock Sinopsis de Psiquiatría. Ciencias de la conducta / Psiquiatría Clínica (10ª ed., pp. 1289-1293). Barcelona: Wolters; 2008.
49. Geller B, Bolhofner K, Craney JL, Williams M, DelBello MP, Gundersen K. Psychosocial functioning in a prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar disorder phenotype. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2000; 39: 1543-1548.
50. Organización Mundial de la Salud. CIE-10. Trastornos mentales y del Comportamiento. Descripciones Clínicas y Pautas para el Diagnóstico. Madrid: MEDITOR; 1992.
51. American Psychiatic Association. DSM-5. Manual Diagnóstico y Estadístico de los Trastornos Mentales. Madrid: Editorial Médica Panamericana; 2014.
52. Biederman J, Petty C, Faraone SV, Seidman L. Phenomenology of childhood psychosis: findings from a large sample of psychiatrically referred youth. J Nerv Ment Dis 2004; 192: 607-614.
53. Cassano GB, Pini S, Saettoni M, Rucci P, Dell’Osso L. Occurrence and clinical correlates of psychiatric comorbidity in patients with psychotic disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59: 60-68.
54. Gartner J, Weintraub S, Carlson GA. Childhoodonset psychosis: evolution and comorbidity. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 256-261.
55. Ulloa RE, Ortiz S, Higuera F, Nogales I, Fresan A, Apiquian R, et al. [Interrater reliability of the Spanish version of Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children--Present and Lifetime version (K-SADSPL)]. Actas Esp Psiquiatr 2006; 34: 36-40.
56. Henin A, Biederman J, Mick E, Hirshfeld-Becker DR, Sachs GS, Wu Y, et al. Childhood antecedent disorders to bipolar disorder in adults: a controlled study. J Affect Disord 2007; 99: 51-57.
57. Kowatch RA, Youngstrom EA, Danielyan A, Findling RL. Review and meta-analysis of the phenomenology and clinical characteristics of mania in children and adolescents. Bipolar Disord 2005; 7: 483-496.
58. Vantalon V, Cohen DM. [Attention deficithyperactivity disorder or juvenile mania]. Arch Pediatr 2004; 11: 1484-1489.
59. Joa I, Johannessen JO, Langeveld J, Friis S, Melle I, Opjordsmoen S, et al. Baseline profiles of adolescent vs. adult-onset first-episode psychosis in an early detection program. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2009; 119: 494-500.
60. Fraguas D, Del Rey-Mejias A, Moreno C, Castro-Fornieles J, Graell M, Otero S, et al. Duration of untreated psychosis predicts functional and clinical outcome in children and adolescents with first-episode psychosis: a 2-year longitudinal study. Schizophr Res 2014; 152: 130-138.
61. Dominguez MD, Fisher HL, Major B, Chisholm B, Rahaman N, Joyce J, et al. Duration of untreated psychosis in adolescents: ethnic differences and clinical profiles. Schizophr Res 2013; 150: 526-532.
62. Tondo L, Lepri B, Cruz N, Baldessarini RJ. Age at onset in 3014 Sardinian bipolar and major depressive disorder patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2010; 121: 446-452.
63. Vieta E, Angst J, Reed C, Bertsch J, Haro JM, EMBLEM Advisory Board. Predictors of switching from mania to depression in a large observational study across Europe (EMBLEM). J Affect Disord 2009; 118: 118-123.
64. Lolich M, Vazquez G, Leiderman EA. [First psychotic episode in bipolar disorder: clinical differentiation and functional impact in an Argentinean national sample]. Vertex 2010; 21: 418-427.
65. Strejilevich S, Retamal Carrasco P. [Perception of the impact of Bipolar Disorder and its diagnosis in health centers in Argentine and Chile]. Vertex 2003; 14: 245-252.
66. Castro-Fornieles J, Baeza I, de la Serna E, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Parellada M, Graell M, et al. Two-year diagnostic stability in early-onset firstepisode psychosis. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2011; 52: 1089-1098.
67. Fraguas D, de Castro MJ, Medina O, Parellada M, Moreno D, Graell M, et al. Does diagnostic classification of early-onset psychosis change over follow-up? Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2008; 39: 137-145.
68. Clemmensen L, Vernal DL, Steinhausen HC. A systematic review of the long-term outcome of early onset schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry 2012; 12: 150.
69. Amminger GP, Henry LP, Harrigan SM, Harris MG, Alvarez-Jimenez M, Herrman H, et al. Outcome in early-onset schizophrenia revisited: findings from the Early Psychosis Prevention and Intervention Centre long-term follow-up study. Schizophr Res 2011; 131: 112-119.
70. Emsley R, Rabinowitz J, Medori R; Early Psychosis Global Working Group. Remission in early psychosis: Rates, predictors, and clinical and functional outcome correlates. Schizophr Res 2007; 89: 129-139.
71. Harrison G, Hopper K, Craig T, Laska E, Siegel C, Wanderling J, et al. Recovery from psychotic illness: a 15- and 25-year international follow-up study. Br J Psychiatry 2001; 178: 506-517.
72. Addington J, Addington D. Patterns of premorbid functioning in first episode psychosis: relationship to 2-year outcome. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2005; 112: 40-46.
73. Hollis C. Developmental precursors of childand adolescent-onset schizophrenia and affective psychoses: diagnostic specificity and continuity with symptom dimensions. Br J Psychiatry 2003; 182: 37-44.
74. Vyas NS, Hadjulis M, Vourdas A, Byrne P, Frangou S. The Maudsley early onset schizophrenia study. Predictors of psychosocial outcome at 4-year follow-up. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007; 16: 465-470.
75. Birmaher B, Axelson D. Course and outcome of bipolar spectrum disorder in children and adolescents: a review of the existing literature. Dev Psychopathol 2006; 18: 1023-1035.
76. Birmaher B, Axelson D, Strober M, Gill MK, Valeri S, Chiappetta L, et al. Clinical course of children and adolescents with bipolar spectrum disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006; 63: 175-183.
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