La estimulación magnética transcraneal para el tratamiento de alucinaciones auditivas refractarias en niños y adolescentes
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2016-12-07
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Gago Ageitos, A., Durán Maseda, M., Vidal Millares, M., López-Moríñigo, J., & Cudeiro Mazaira, J. (2016). La estimulación magnética transcraneal para el tratamiento de alucinaciones auditivas refractarias en niños y adolescentes. Revista De Psiquiatría Infanto-Juvenil, 33(4), 447–457. https://doi.org/10.31766/revpsij.v33n4a1
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Artículo de revisión
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https://doi.org/10.31766/revpsij.v33n4a1Palabras clave:
Estimulación transcraneal magnética, alucinaciones auditivas, niños y adolescentesResumen
La estimulación magnética transcraneal (EMT) es una técnica novedosa, no invasiva, que utiliza la fuerza electromagnética para alterar la excitabilidad neuronal. De manera que al contrario que el TEC (terapia electroconvulsiva) no requiere anestesia y el paciente permanece despierto y monitorizado clínicamente; y al contrario que en la estimulación del nervio vago o que en la estimulación cerebral profunda los electrodos no se insertan en el cerebro. Hasta la fecha se ha utilizado en el tratamiento de distintos trastornos neuropsiquiátricos y desde el 2008 ha sido aprobada por la FDA para el tratamiento de la depresión resistente sin síntomas psicóticos.
La experiencia en esquizofrenia y otras psicosis es menor y como siempre hay muchos menos estudios en la población infantil y juvenil, pero como clínicos sabemos que el inicio de la patología psiquiátrica más grave ocurre en la infancia y la adolescencia y que la mitad de todos los trastornos mentales se inician antes de la mitad de la adolescencia. En pacientes tan jóvenes es especialmente importante encontrar tratamientos más efectivos y menos dañinos.
La EMT representaría una alternativa interesante, ya que puede activar algunas regiones mientras que al mismo tiempo inhibe otras; de manera que hay estudios que explican mejoría de la sintomatología negativa de la esquizofrenia mediante la estimulación del córtex frontal dorsolateral. La eficacia en el tratamiento de las alucinaciones auditivas mediante la inhibición del córtex temporal izquierdo será revisada en este artículo.
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1. Aleman A, et al. «Use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment in psychiatry.» Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci., nº 11 (2013): 53-59.
2. Allen P, Modinos Gemma, Hubl D, Shielsa G, Cachia A, Jardri R, Tomas P et al. «Neuroimaging Auditory Hallucinations in Schizophrenia: from Neuroanatomy to Neurochemestry and Beyond.» Schizophrenia Bull , april 2012.
3. Amminger GP, Harris MG, Conus O. «Treated incidence of first -episode psychoses in the catchment area EPPIC between 1997 and 2000.» Acta Psychiatr Scand., nº 114 (2006): 337-345.
4. Bartels-Velthis A, Jenner J, Van de Willige G, Van Os J. «Prevalence and correlates of auditory vocal hallucinations in middle childhood.» The Bristish Journal of Psychiatry 196, nº 1 (2010): 41-46.
5. Belmaker RH, Fleischman A. «Transcarnial magnetic stimulation: a potential new frontier of psychiatry.» Biol. Psychiatry, nº 38 (1995): 419-21.
6. Blanco-López MJ, Cudeiro J, Gago A. «A simple repeated rTMS protocol effectively removes auditory verbal hallucinations in a single patient study.» Schizophrenia Research, 2015.
7. Bloch Y, Grisaru N, Harel EV, Beitler G, Faivel N, Ratzoni G eta al. «Repetitive transcarnial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depression in adolescents: an open-label study.» J. ECT, nº 24 (2008): 156-159.
8. Blom RM, Figee M, Vulink N, Denys D. «Update on repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation un obsessive-compulsive disorder: different targets.» Curr. Psychiatry, nº 13 (2011): 289-294.
9. Bruckmann S, Hauk D, Roessner V, Resch F, Freitag CM et al. «Cortical inhibition in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; new insights from electroencephalografic response to transcranial magnetic stimulation.» Brain, nº 135 (2012): 2215-2230.
10. Buchmann J, Wolters A, Haessler F et al. «Disturbed transcallosally mediated motor inhibition in children with deficit hiperactivity disorder (ADHD).» Clin Neurophysiol., nº 114 (2003): 2036-2042.
11. Cantello, R. «Applications of transcranial magnetic stimulation in movement disorders.» J. Clin Neurophysiol, nº 19 (2002): 272-93.
12. Cheung P, Schweitzer K, Crwley K, Tuckwell V. «Violence in schizophrenia: role of hallucinations and delusions.» Schizophr. Res. 26, nº 2-3 (1997): 181-190.
13. Dan B, Christiaens F, Christophe C, Dachy B. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation and other evoked motor potentials in pediatric multiple sclerosis.» Pediatr Neurol, nº 22 (2000): 136-138.
14. Demeulemeester M, Amad A, Bubrovszky M, Pins D, Thomas P eta al. «What is the real effect of 1 Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on hallucinations? Controlling for publication bias in neuromosulation trials. Biol Psychiatry .» nº 71 (2012): 5-16.
15. Dierks T, Linden DEJ, Jandl M, Formisano E, Goebel R, Lanfermann H, et al. «Activaction of Heschl´s gyrus during auditory hallucinations.» Neuron, nº 22 (1999): 615-21.
16. Freitas C, Fregni F, Pascual-Leone A. «A Metaanalysis of the effects of repetitive transcarnial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on negative and positive symptoms in schizophrenia.» Schizophr Res, nº 108 (2009): 11-24.
17. Garvey Ma, Gilbert DL. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation in children.» Eur.J.Paediatr. Neurol, nº 8 (2004): 7-19.
18. Gilbert DL, Gravey MA, Bansal AS, Lipps T, Zhang J, Wassermann EM. «Should transcranial magnetic stimulation research in children be considered minimal risk?» Neurophysiol, nº 115 (2004): 1730-1739.
19. Gilbert DL, Isaacs KM, Augusta M, Macneil LK, Mostofsky SH. «Motor cortex inhibition: a marker of ADHD behavior and motor development in children.» Neurology, nº 76 (2011): 615-621.
20. Haddock G, McCarron J, Tarrier N, Faragher EB. «Scales to measure dimensions of hallucinations and delusions: the psychotic symptom rating sacles (PSYRATS).» Psychol Med, nº 29 (1999): 879-89.
21. Hallet, Mark. «TMS.» Nature, nº 406 (july 2000): 147-150.
22. Hoffman RE, Boutros NH. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation and auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia.» Lancet 355, nº 9209 (2000): 1073-1075.
23. Hoffman RE, Hawkins KA, Gueorguieva R et al. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation of left temporoparietal cortex and medication-resistant auditory hallucinations.» Arc Gen Psychiatry 60, nº 1 (2003): 49-56.
24. Hoffman RE, Wu K, Pittman B, Cahill JD, Hawkins KA, Fernandez T. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation of Wernicke´s and riagth homologous sites to curtail “voices”: A randomized trial.» Biol Psychiatry 73, nº 10 (2013): 1008-1014.
25. Homan P, Kindler J, Dierks T. «Cerebral flood flw identifies responders to TMS.» Transl Psychiatry 2, nº 11 (Nov 2012): e189.
26. Jardri R, Bartels-Velthuis AA, Debbané M, Jenner JA, Kelleher I et al. «From phenomenology to neurophysiological understanding of hallucinations in children and adolescents.» Schizophrenia Bulletin, 2014: 221-232.
27. Jardri R, Bubrovsky M, Demeulemeester M et al. «Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to treat early-onset auditory hallucinations.» J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, nº 51 (2012): 947-949.
28. Jardri R, Lucas B, Delevoye-Turrell Y, Delmaire C, Delion P Thomas P. «An 11-year-old boy with drug-resistant schizophrenia treated with temporoparietal rTMS.» Molecular Psychiatry, nº 12 (2007): 320-323.
29. Jenner JA, Van de Willige G. «The Auditory Vocal Hallucination Rating Scale (AVHRS).» University of Groningen, 2002.
30. Kelleher, I. «Auditory hallucinations in the population: what do they mean and what should we do about them?» Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 134, nº 1 (june 2016): 3-5.
31. Kessler R, Amminger GP, Bedirhan T. «Age of onset of mental disorders: a review of recent literature.» Current Opin Psychiatry 20, nº 4 (2007): 359-364.
32. Koops S, Van Dellen E, Schutte MJL, Nieuwdorp W, Neggers SFW, Sommer I. «Theta Burst Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for auditory verbal hallucinations: negative findings from a double-blind-randomized trial.» Schizophrenia Bulletin, july 2015.
33. Lennox BR, Park SBG, Medley I, Morris PG, Jones PB. «The functional anatomy of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia.» Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging, nº 100 (2000): 13-20.
34. Loo C, MvFarquhar T, Walter G. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation in adolescent depression.» Australas, nº 14 (2006): 81-85.
35. Marcsisin MJ, Rosenstock J, Gannon J. Schizophrenia and related disorders. Oxford, 2016.
36. Marras A, Pallanti S. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of pharmacoresistant nondelusional auditory verbal hallucinations in dementia.» case reports in psychiatry, 2013.
37. Mayer G, Faivel N, Aviram S, Walter G, Bloch Y. «Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in depressed adolescents: experience, knowledge an attitudes of recipients and their parents.» J.ECT, nº 76 (2012): 104-107.
38. Mc Carthy-Jones S, Thomas N, Strauss C, Dodgson G, Jones N, Woods A, Brewin CR et al. «Better than mermaids and stray dogs? Subtyping auditory verbal hallucinations and its implications for research and practise.» Schizophr Bull 40, nº 4 (Jul 2014): S275-84.
39. Mc Guire PK, Silberwig A, Wrigth I, Murray RM, Frackowiak RSJ, Frith CD. «The neural correlates of inner speech and auditory verbal imagery in schizophrenia: relatioship to auditory verbal hallucinations.» Br J Psychiatry, nº 169 (1996): 148-159.
40. McGee R. «Hallucinations in nonpsychotic children.» J Am Acd Child Adoles Psycchiatr Rev, nº 39 (2000): 121-13.
41. Mertin P, Hartwig S. «Auditory hallucinations in non-psychotic children:diagnostic considerations.» Child Adolesc Mental Health, nº 9 (2004): 9-14.
42. Nezu A, Kimura S, Takeshita S, Tanaka M. «Charasteristic response to transcranial stimulation in Rett syndrome.» Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiolo, nº 109 (1998): 100-103.
43. Nezu A, Kimura S, Uehara S, Kobayashia T, Tanaka M, Saito K. «Magnetic stimulationof motor cortex in children: maturity of corticospinal pathway and problem of clinical application.» Brain and Development 19, nº 3 (april 1997): 176-180.
44. Pascual-Leone A, Rubio B, Pallardó F et al. «Rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation of left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in drug-resistant depression.» The Lancet 348, nº 9022 (july 1996): 233-237.
45. Penttila M, Jaaskelainen E, Hirvonen N, Isohanni M, Miettunen J. «Duration of untreated psychosis as predictor of long-term outcome in schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis.» The British Journal of Psychiatry 205, nº 2 (aug 2014): 88-94.
46. Rajapakse T, Kirton A. «non-invasive brain stimulation in children: applications and future directions.» Transl Neurosci 4, nº 2 (Jun 2013).
47. Rosen C, Grossman L, Harrow M, Bonner-Jackson A, Faull R. «Diagnostic and prognostic significance of Schneiderian first-rank symptoms: A 20-yera longitudinal study of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.» Psiq Biol 19, nº 4 (2012): 110-115.
48. Shergill SS, Murray RM, McGuire PK. «Auditory hallucinations: a review of psychological treatments.» Schizophr. Res 32, nº 3 (1998): 137-150.
49. Sidhu K, Dickey TO. «Hallucinations in children: Diagnostic and treatment strategies.» Current Psychiatry 9, nº 10 (2010).
50. Slotema C, Blom J, Van Lutterveld R et al. «Review of the efficacy of transcranial magnetic stimulation for auditory verbal hallucinations.» Biological psychiatry, october 2013.
51. Slotema CW, Aleman A, Daskalakis ZJ, Sommer IE. «Meta-analysis of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of auditory verbal hallucinations: update and effects bafter one month.» Schizophr Res, nº 142 (2012): 40-45.
52. Slotema, C, Blom J, Hoek H, Sommer I. «Should we expand the toolbox of psychiatric teratment methods to include rTMS? A meta-analysis of teh efficacy of rTMS in psychiatric disorders.» The journal of clinical psychiatry 71, nº 7 (2010): 873-884.
53. Stephane M, Hagen MC, Lee J T, Uecker J, Pardo P, Kuskowski M et al. «About the mechanisms of auditory verbal hallucinations: a positron emission tomographic study.» J. Psychiatry Neurosci., nº 31 (2006): 396-405.
54. Vallejo-Ruiloba, J. Introducción a la psicopatología y psiquiatría. Barcelona: Masson, 1998.
55. Van Lutterveld R, Koops Sanne et al. «The effect of rTMS on auditory hallucinations: Clues from an EEG-rTMS study.» Schizophrenia Research 137, nº 1 (May 2012): 174-179.
56. Wall CA, Croarkin PE, Sim LA, Husain MM, Janicak PG, Kozel FA et al. «Adjunctive use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in depressed adolescents: a prospective, open pilot study.» J. Clin. Psychiatry, nº 72 (2011): 1263-1269.
57. Wang J, Yifeng XU. «Should rTMS be considered and effective adjunctive treatment for auditory hallucinations in patients with schizophrenia?» Shanghai Archives of Psychiatry 25, nº 4 (2013).
58. Wassermann EM, Epstein CM, Ziemann U. The Oxford handbook of transcranial stimulation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
59. Weaver L, Rostain AL, Mace W, Akhtar U, Moss E, O´Reardon JP. «TMS in the treatment of ADHD in adolescents and young adults: a pilot study.» J. ECT, nº 28 (2012): 98-103.
60. Yoshizumi T, Murase S, Honjo S, Kaneko H, Murakami T. «Hallucinatory experiences in a community sample of Japanese children.» Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, nº 43 (2004): 1030-1036.
61. Ziemann U, Paulus W, Rothenberger A. «Decreased motor inhibition in Tourette´s disorder: evidence from transcranial stimulation.» Am J Psychiatry, nº 154 (1997): 1277-1284.
2. Allen P, Modinos Gemma, Hubl D, Shielsa G, Cachia A, Jardri R, Tomas P et al. «Neuroimaging Auditory Hallucinations in Schizophrenia: from Neuroanatomy to Neurochemestry and Beyond.» Schizophrenia Bull , april 2012.
3. Amminger GP, Harris MG, Conus O. «Treated incidence of first -episode psychoses in the catchment area EPPIC between 1997 and 2000.» Acta Psychiatr Scand., nº 114 (2006): 337-345.
4. Bartels-Velthis A, Jenner J, Van de Willige G, Van Os J. «Prevalence and correlates of auditory vocal hallucinations in middle childhood.» The Bristish Journal of Psychiatry 196, nº 1 (2010): 41-46.
5. Belmaker RH, Fleischman A. «Transcarnial magnetic stimulation: a potential new frontier of psychiatry.» Biol. Psychiatry, nº 38 (1995): 419-21.
6. Blanco-López MJ, Cudeiro J, Gago A. «A simple repeated rTMS protocol effectively removes auditory verbal hallucinations in a single patient study.» Schizophrenia Research, 2015.
7. Bloch Y, Grisaru N, Harel EV, Beitler G, Faivel N, Ratzoni G eta al. «Repetitive transcarnial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depression in adolescents: an open-label study.» J. ECT, nº 24 (2008): 156-159.
8. Blom RM, Figee M, Vulink N, Denys D. «Update on repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation un obsessive-compulsive disorder: different targets.» Curr. Psychiatry, nº 13 (2011): 289-294.
9. Bruckmann S, Hauk D, Roessner V, Resch F, Freitag CM et al. «Cortical inhibition in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; new insights from electroencephalografic response to transcranial magnetic stimulation.» Brain, nº 135 (2012): 2215-2230.
10. Buchmann J, Wolters A, Haessler F et al. «Disturbed transcallosally mediated motor inhibition in children with deficit hiperactivity disorder (ADHD).» Clin Neurophysiol., nº 114 (2003): 2036-2042.
11. Cantello, R. «Applications of transcranial magnetic stimulation in movement disorders.» J. Clin Neurophysiol, nº 19 (2002): 272-93.
12. Cheung P, Schweitzer K, Crwley K, Tuckwell V. «Violence in schizophrenia: role of hallucinations and delusions.» Schizophr. Res. 26, nº 2-3 (1997): 181-190.
13. Dan B, Christiaens F, Christophe C, Dachy B. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation and other evoked motor potentials in pediatric multiple sclerosis.» Pediatr Neurol, nº 22 (2000): 136-138.
14. Demeulemeester M, Amad A, Bubrovszky M, Pins D, Thomas P eta al. «What is the real effect of 1 Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on hallucinations? Controlling for publication bias in neuromosulation trials. Biol Psychiatry .» nº 71 (2012): 5-16.
15. Dierks T, Linden DEJ, Jandl M, Formisano E, Goebel R, Lanfermann H, et al. «Activaction of Heschl´s gyrus during auditory hallucinations.» Neuron, nº 22 (1999): 615-21.
16. Freitas C, Fregni F, Pascual-Leone A. «A Metaanalysis of the effects of repetitive transcarnial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on negative and positive symptoms in schizophrenia.» Schizophr Res, nº 108 (2009): 11-24.
17. Garvey Ma, Gilbert DL. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation in children.» Eur.J.Paediatr. Neurol, nº 8 (2004): 7-19.
18. Gilbert DL, Gravey MA, Bansal AS, Lipps T, Zhang J, Wassermann EM. «Should transcranial magnetic stimulation research in children be considered minimal risk?» Neurophysiol, nº 115 (2004): 1730-1739.
19. Gilbert DL, Isaacs KM, Augusta M, Macneil LK, Mostofsky SH. «Motor cortex inhibition: a marker of ADHD behavior and motor development in children.» Neurology, nº 76 (2011): 615-621.
20. Haddock G, McCarron J, Tarrier N, Faragher EB. «Scales to measure dimensions of hallucinations and delusions: the psychotic symptom rating sacles (PSYRATS).» Psychol Med, nº 29 (1999): 879-89.
21. Hallet, Mark. «TMS.» Nature, nº 406 (july 2000): 147-150.
22. Hoffman RE, Boutros NH. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation and auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia.» Lancet 355, nº 9209 (2000): 1073-1075.
23. Hoffman RE, Hawkins KA, Gueorguieva R et al. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation of left temporoparietal cortex and medication-resistant auditory hallucinations.» Arc Gen Psychiatry 60, nº 1 (2003): 49-56.
24. Hoffman RE, Wu K, Pittman B, Cahill JD, Hawkins KA, Fernandez T. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation of Wernicke´s and riagth homologous sites to curtail “voices”: A randomized trial.» Biol Psychiatry 73, nº 10 (2013): 1008-1014.
25. Homan P, Kindler J, Dierks T. «Cerebral flood flw identifies responders to TMS.» Transl Psychiatry 2, nº 11 (Nov 2012): e189.
26. Jardri R, Bartels-Velthuis AA, Debbané M, Jenner JA, Kelleher I et al. «From phenomenology to neurophysiological understanding of hallucinations in children and adolescents.» Schizophrenia Bulletin, 2014: 221-232.
27. Jardri R, Bubrovsky M, Demeulemeester M et al. «Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to treat early-onset auditory hallucinations.» J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, nº 51 (2012): 947-949.
28. Jardri R, Lucas B, Delevoye-Turrell Y, Delmaire C, Delion P Thomas P. «An 11-year-old boy with drug-resistant schizophrenia treated with temporoparietal rTMS.» Molecular Psychiatry, nº 12 (2007): 320-323.
29. Jenner JA, Van de Willige G. «The Auditory Vocal Hallucination Rating Scale (AVHRS).» University of Groningen, 2002.
30. Kelleher, I. «Auditory hallucinations in the population: what do they mean and what should we do about them?» Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 134, nº 1 (june 2016): 3-5.
31. Kessler R, Amminger GP, Bedirhan T. «Age of onset of mental disorders: a review of recent literature.» Current Opin Psychiatry 20, nº 4 (2007): 359-364.
32. Koops S, Van Dellen E, Schutte MJL, Nieuwdorp W, Neggers SFW, Sommer I. «Theta Burst Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for auditory verbal hallucinations: negative findings from a double-blind-randomized trial.» Schizophrenia Bulletin, july 2015.
33. Lennox BR, Park SBG, Medley I, Morris PG, Jones PB. «The functional anatomy of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia.» Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging, nº 100 (2000): 13-20.
34. Loo C, MvFarquhar T, Walter G. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation in adolescent depression.» Australas, nº 14 (2006): 81-85.
35. Marcsisin MJ, Rosenstock J, Gannon J. Schizophrenia and related disorders. Oxford, 2016.
36. Marras A, Pallanti S. «Transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of pharmacoresistant nondelusional auditory verbal hallucinations in dementia.» case reports in psychiatry, 2013.
37. Mayer G, Faivel N, Aviram S, Walter G, Bloch Y. «Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in depressed adolescents: experience, knowledge an attitudes of recipients and their parents.» J.ECT, nº 76 (2012): 104-107.
38. Mc Carthy-Jones S, Thomas N, Strauss C, Dodgson G, Jones N, Woods A, Brewin CR et al. «Better than mermaids and stray dogs? Subtyping auditory verbal hallucinations and its implications for research and practise.» Schizophr Bull 40, nº 4 (Jul 2014): S275-84.
39. Mc Guire PK, Silberwig A, Wrigth I, Murray RM, Frackowiak RSJ, Frith CD. «The neural correlates of inner speech and auditory verbal imagery in schizophrenia: relatioship to auditory verbal hallucinations.» Br J Psychiatry, nº 169 (1996): 148-159.
40. McGee R. «Hallucinations in nonpsychotic children.» J Am Acd Child Adoles Psycchiatr Rev, nº 39 (2000): 121-13.
41. Mertin P, Hartwig S. «Auditory hallucinations in non-psychotic children:diagnostic considerations.» Child Adolesc Mental Health, nº 9 (2004): 9-14.
42. Nezu A, Kimura S, Takeshita S, Tanaka M. «Charasteristic response to transcranial stimulation in Rett syndrome.» Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiolo, nº 109 (1998): 100-103.
43. Nezu A, Kimura S, Uehara S, Kobayashia T, Tanaka M, Saito K. «Magnetic stimulationof motor cortex in children: maturity of corticospinal pathway and problem of clinical application.» Brain and Development 19, nº 3 (april 1997): 176-180.
44. Pascual-Leone A, Rubio B, Pallardó F et al. «Rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation of left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in drug-resistant depression.» The Lancet 348, nº 9022 (july 1996): 233-237.
45. Penttila M, Jaaskelainen E, Hirvonen N, Isohanni M, Miettunen J. «Duration of untreated psychosis as predictor of long-term outcome in schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis.» The British Journal of Psychiatry 205, nº 2 (aug 2014): 88-94.
46. Rajapakse T, Kirton A. «non-invasive brain stimulation in children: applications and future directions.» Transl Neurosci 4, nº 2 (Jun 2013).
47. Rosen C, Grossman L, Harrow M, Bonner-Jackson A, Faull R. «Diagnostic and prognostic significance of Schneiderian first-rank symptoms: A 20-yera longitudinal study of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.» Psiq Biol 19, nº 4 (2012): 110-115.
48. Shergill SS, Murray RM, McGuire PK. «Auditory hallucinations: a review of psychological treatments.» Schizophr. Res 32, nº 3 (1998): 137-150.
49. Sidhu K, Dickey TO. «Hallucinations in children: Diagnostic and treatment strategies.» Current Psychiatry 9, nº 10 (2010).
50. Slotema C, Blom J, Van Lutterveld R et al. «Review of the efficacy of transcranial magnetic stimulation for auditory verbal hallucinations.» Biological psychiatry, october 2013.
51. Slotema CW, Aleman A, Daskalakis ZJ, Sommer IE. «Meta-analysis of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of auditory verbal hallucinations: update and effects bafter one month.» Schizophr Res, nº 142 (2012): 40-45.
52. Slotema, C, Blom J, Hoek H, Sommer I. «Should we expand the toolbox of psychiatric teratment methods to include rTMS? A meta-analysis of teh efficacy of rTMS in psychiatric disorders.» The journal of clinical psychiatry 71, nº 7 (2010): 873-884.
53. Stephane M, Hagen MC, Lee J T, Uecker J, Pardo P, Kuskowski M et al. «About the mechanisms of auditory verbal hallucinations: a positron emission tomographic study.» J. Psychiatry Neurosci., nº 31 (2006): 396-405.
54. Vallejo-Ruiloba, J. Introducción a la psicopatología y psiquiatría. Barcelona: Masson, 1998.
55. Van Lutterveld R, Koops Sanne et al. «The effect of rTMS on auditory hallucinations: Clues from an EEG-rTMS study.» Schizophrenia Research 137, nº 1 (May 2012): 174-179.
56. Wall CA, Croarkin PE, Sim LA, Husain MM, Janicak PG, Kozel FA et al. «Adjunctive use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in depressed adolescents: a prospective, open pilot study.» J. Clin. Psychiatry, nº 72 (2011): 1263-1269.
57. Wang J, Yifeng XU. «Should rTMS be considered and effective adjunctive treatment for auditory hallucinations in patients with schizophrenia?» Shanghai Archives of Psychiatry 25, nº 4 (2013).
58. Wassermann EM, Epstein CM, Ziemann U. The Oxford handbook of transcranial stimulation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
59. Weaver L, Rostain AL, Mace W, Akhtar U, Moss E, O´Reardon JP. «TMS in the treatment of ADHD in adolescents and young adults: a pilot study.» J. ECT, nº 28 (2012): 98-103.
60. Yoshizumi T, Murase S, Honjo S, Kaneko H, Murakami T. «Hallucinatory experiences in a community sample of Japanese children.» Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, nº 43 (2004): 1030-1036.
61. Ziemann U, Paulus W, Rothenberger A. «Decreased motor inhibition in Tourette´s disorder: evidence from transcranial stimulation.» Am J Psychiatry, nº 154 (1997): 1277-1284.
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